Origins of Writing | Appendices

Contents

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Chapter

rigins

Writing

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※ Abacus: a manual counting device using beads or stones on rods or grooves to perform calculations
※ Abecedary: an inscription or listing of the letters of an alphabet, often in traditional order
※ Abjad: a writing system where each symbol typically represents a consonant, leaving most vowels unwritten
※ Abugida: a writing system where consonant symbols include an inherent vowel, and other vowels are marked with diacritics or modifications
※ Acrophonic: using the initial sound of a word to represent a number, especially in ancient numeral systems
※ Acrophony: the naming of letters based on words that begin with the sound the letter represents
※ Additive notation: a system where values are combined by addition of symbols to express numbers
※ Alphabet: a writing system in which symbols represent both consonants and vowels as distinct, separate characters
※ Allopatric speciation: the formation of new species due to geographic isolation
※ Amate: a type of bark paper traditionally used in Meso-America for writing and artwork
※ Ampersand: a symbol (&) representing the word “and”, derived from the Latin et
※ Amphora: an ancient jar with two handles, used as a unit of volume in inscriptions
※ Apostrophe: from Greek apostrophos (“turning away”), a punctuation mark indicating omission or possession
※ A posteriori: Latin for “from the latter”; knowledge derived from experience or empirical evidence
※ A priori: Latin for “from the former”; knowledge independent of experience, based on reasoning
※ Asterisk: from Greek asteriskos (“little star”), a symbol (*) used to mark a footnote or omission
※ Attic: relating to the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Athens and surrounding regions
※ Avagraha: a Sanskrit symbol (ऽ) used in Indian scripts to indicate prodelision or prolongation

※ Bicameral script: a script that uses two distinct sets of letterforms, typically uppercase and lowercase

※ Biquinary: a numeral system combining base-2 and base-5 elements, often used in ancient counting tools

※ Boas–Jakobson Principle: the idea that linguistic structure reflects cultural priorities, linking language and worldview
※ Boustrophedon: an ancient writing style where lines of text alternate direction, going left-to-right then right-to-left, l like the path of an ox ploughing a field
※ Bulla: a sealed clay envelope used in ancient Mesopotamia to enclose and authenticate tokens representing goods or transactions

※ Calamus: a reed pen used in ancient times for writing, particularly on materials like papyrus
※ Capitulum: Latin for “little head”, a symbol or heading mark indicating the start of a chapter or section
※ Cartouche: an oval or oblong enclosure around a group of Egyptian hieroglyphs, typically signifying a royal name

※ Centrifugal speciation: a model where speciation begins at the periphery of a central population, often due to expansion

※ Centum: Latin for “hundred”, used as a numeral term or base reference
※ Creatio ex nihilo: Latin for “creation from nothing”; the concept of something coming into being without pre-existing material
※ Chevron: a V-shaped mark used in writing
※ Civilisation: a complex human society marked by the development of cities, organised governments, social classes, and often systems of writing and recordkeeping
※ Cognate: a word that shares a common origin with a word in another language due to descent from a common ancestral language
※ Codice: a manuscript book, especially from Meso-America, typically made from folded bark paper or animal skin
※ Comparative linguistics: the study of similarities and differences between languages to determine their historical relationships and common origins
※ Consonant cluster: a group of two or more consonants pronounced together without intervening vowels
※ Cuneus: Latin for 'wedge', a mark made by a wedge-shaped stylus in clay, characteristic of cuneiform writing

※ Danda: a punctuation mark (|) used in South Asian scripts to indicate the end of a sentence or verse
※ Decimal: a base-10 numeral system using ten symbols (0–9), also called the denary system
※ Demotikos: Ancient Greek for "popular" or "of the common people"
※ Determinative: a non-phonetic symbol added to a word to clarify its meaning or category (e.g., action, object, person)
※ Diacritic: a mark added to a letter to alter its pronunciation or meaning
※ Digit: a single numerical symbol used to represent quantity in a numeral system
※ Diple: Greek for “double”, a mark resembling (>) used in ancient texts to highlight noteworthy passages
※ Duodecimal: a base-12 numeral system

※ Enotikon: from Greek enotikon (“unifying”), a mark () used to indicate that two words should be read as one

※ Epistemology: the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
※ Ex nihilo: from Latin, meaning "from nothing"

※ Featural alphabet: a writing system in which the shapes of the characters reflect the phonological features of the sounds they represent
※ Flourish of approval: a decorative mark added to manuscripts to indicate approval or correctness
※ Full writing system: a writing system capable of representing all the elements of a language, including grammar, vocabulary, and syntax, typically using phonetic symbols

※ Gematria: a system assigning numerical values to letters, words, or phrases, especially in Hebrew texts

※ Glottal stop: a speech sound produced by obstructing airflow at the vocal cords, often represented by a distinct symbol
※ Glottographic: a type of writing system that represents spoken language directly, often using symbols for sounds (phonemes, syllables) or words
※ Glyph: from the Greek glyphe ("carving"), a visual symbol or character, such as those in hieroglyphic writing, that represents a sound, idea, or object
※ Grapheme: the smallest functional unit of a writing system (like a letter or symbol) that conveys a distinction in meaning or sound
※ Grammatogenist: a person or community responsible for creating a new writing system, especially for previously unwritten languages

※ Hedera: from Latin hedera (“ivy”), a decorative punctuation mark shaped like an ivy leaf, used to divide text
※ Hegemony: dominant influence or authority, especially of one culture or ideology over others
※ Hengs: vertical marks used in traditional Chinese counting systems to represent numeric units
※ Hieros: Ancient Greek for "sacred"
※ Homogenisation: the process of making things uniform or similar, often in culture or language
※ Hybrid: an organism or system resulting from the combination of two distinct sources
※ Hypodiastole: from Greek hypo- (“under”) and diastole (“separation”), a punctuation mark () used to separate words or clarify meaning

※ Ideogram: a graphic symbol that represents an abstract idea or concept rather than a specific word or sound (e.g., a symbol for “peace” or “danger”)
※ Ideographic: relating to symbols that represent ideas or concepts rather than specific sounds or words
※ Inscription: text that is engraved, carved, or written on a durable surface
※ Interlocutor: a person participating in a dialogue or conversation
※ Interpunct: from Latin inter (“between”) and punctum (“point”), a small dot used as a word separator
※ Ionian: relating to the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken along the coast of Asia Minor

※ Judou mark: Chinese punctuation marks used to mark partitions in a text

※ Kolon: Greek for “member” or “clause”, a rhetorical or syntactic unit, sometimes marked in ancient writing
※ Komma: Greek for “I cut”, a short phrase or segment of a sentence

※ Language: a structured system of communication using sounds, gestures, or symbols, governed by rules (grammar) and used for human expression and interaction
※ Ligature: a single character formed by joining two or more letters
※ Libra pondo: Latin for “pound by weight”, origin of the abbreviation “lb”
※ Lingua franca: a language used as a common means of communication between people who do not share a native language
※ Logogram: a written character that represents a whole word rather than a single sound or syllable
※ Logography: a writing system in which each symbol represents a word or morpheme, rather than a single sound
※ Logosyllabary: a writing system combining logograms and syllabograms

※ Majuscule: from Latin maiusculus (“rather large”), large or uppercase letter forms
※ Manicule: from Latin manicula (“little hand”), a pointing hand symbol (☞) used to draw attention to text
※ Manuscript: a handwritten text, especially before the invention of printing
※ Memetics: the study of how cultural information spreads and evolves, modelled on biological evolution
※ Mesopotamia: from Greek meso (middle) and potamos (river), meaning "land between rivers", an historical region between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers around modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria and Turkey
※ Mille: Latin for “thousand”, used in numeral terms like millennium
※ Minuscule: from Latin minusculus (“rather small”), small or lowercase letter forms
※ Modality: the physical or sensory channel through which language is expressed, such as speech, writing, or signing
※ Morphology: the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of words
※ Multiplicative notation: a system in which a base unit is multiplied by a coefficient to form numbers
※ Mutually intelligible: describing languages or dialects that speakers can understand without prior study

※ Natural language: a language that has developed organically among humans over time, as opposed to constructed or artificial languages
※ Neolithic: a prehistoric period (beginning around 10,000 BCE) marked by the development of agriculture, permanent settlements, and early symbolic systems
※ Neography: a newly invented writing system, often created for a specific language or purpose, especially in modern or recent times
※ Notation: a system of symbols used to represent information, often in music, math, or linguistics, but not necessarily tied to spoken language
※ Number: an abstract concept representing quantity, order, or position
※ Numeral: a written or spoken symbol or group of symbols that represents a number

※ Ontology: the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of being and existence
※ Ordinal: a number indicating position or order (e.g., 1st, 2nd), sometimes marked with a superscript suffix

※ Orthography: the standardised system of spelling and writing conventions used in a particular language

※ Paradigm shift: a fundamental change in underlying assumptions or methodologies within a field
※ Paragraphos: Greek for “written beside”, a mark used in ancient texts to indicate a new section
※ Parenthesis: Greek for “insertion”, marks used to enclose additional or explanatory material
※ Papyrus: a writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant, used extensively in ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean world
※ Parchment: a writing surface made from animal skin, used especially in manuscripts
※ Particle: a short word or grammatical element with functional rather than lexical meaning
※ Parapatric speciation: speciation occurring in adjacent populations with limited interbreeding
※ Peripatric speciation: a type of speciation where a small population becomes isolated at the edge of a larger one
※ Periodos: Greek for “go around”, a complete sentence or rhetorical unit
※ Petroglyph: an image or symbol carved into rock surfaces, often with cultural or communicative significance
※ Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/ in "pat" vs. "bat")
※ Phonogram: a symbol representing a sound or combination of sounds in speech
※ Phonology: the study of the sound systems and patterns within a language
※ Pictogram/Pictograph: a symbol or drawing that represents a physical object or concept, one of the earliest forms of visual communication
※ Pilcrow: a symbol (¶) marking the start of a paragraph
※ Placeholder: a symbol used to maintain positional structure in a numeral system, such as zero in decimal notation
※ Place-value / positional notation: a numeral system in which the value of a digit depends on its position within the number
※ Polyphony: the condition in which a single symbol represents multiple sounds or pronunciations
※ Proto-hieroglyph: early form of Egyptian hieroglyphs that appeared before the fully developed hieroglyphic system
※ Proto-writing: early systems of visual symbols used to convey limited information before the development of full writing systems
※ Punctus: Latin for “point”, a generic term for dot-based punctuation marks

※ Quinary: a base-5 numeral system
※ Quipu: a system of knotted strings used by the Inca to record numbers and other data

※ Radical – a graphical component of a character, especially in logographic systems, used for classification or conveying meaning

※ Radix: Latin for “root”, the base or foundational part of a number or character
※ Rebus principle – the use of symbols or pictures to represent words or parts of words based on sound rather than meaning
※ Relief – a sculptural technique where the written or carved elements project from the background surface

※ Scriptio continua: Latin for “continuous writing”, a style of writing without spaces or punctuation
※ Script: the set of visual symbols used to write a language, often referring to the graphic form of a writing system
※ Semasiographic: a system of communication using symbols to convey meaning directly, without representing spoken language (e.g. emojis)
※ Semi-syllabary: a writing system in which some signs represent syllables and others represent individual sounds
※ Signing: a form of communication using hand gestures, facial expressions, and body language, typically used in sign languages like ASL
※ Siniform: having the shape or stylistic characteristics of Chinese writing
※ Soft power: influence exerted through cultural appeal, diplomacy, or values rather than coercion
※ Speech: the vocalised form of language, produced through the coordination of breath, vocal cords, and articulators like the tongue and lips
※ Speciation: the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise
※ Stylus: a pointed tool used for inscribing or writing on soft materials like clay or wax
※ Subtractive notation: a numeral format where a smaller value precedes a larger one to indicate subtraction
※ Sympatric speciation: speciation that occurs without geographic separation, within the same environment
※ Syllabary: a writing system in which each symbol represents an entire syllable
※ Syllabograms: individual signs or symbols that represent syllables in a writing system
※ Syllable: a unit of pronunciation typically consisting of a vowel sound alone or with surrounding consonants
※ Syntax: the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences in a language
※ Sexagesimal: a base-60 numeral system, notably used in ancient Mesopotamia
※ Sign-value notation: a system where the value of each symbol is fixed, regardless of position, and repeated to indicate multiples

※ Tablet: a flat slab of material, often clay or stone, used as a surface for writing
※ Teletype: a telecommunication device that prints text sent over wires or radio
※ Tonal diacritics: marks added to letters to indicate differences in pitch or tone in tonal language
※ Trailing zero: one or more zeros appearing after the last non-zero digit in a number, often indicating scale or precision
※ Transliteration: the representation of text from one script using the characters of another
※ Typography: the technique of arranging written language visually, especially in printed or digital texts, including font choice and layout

※ Unicameral script: a script that uses only one set of letter forms, with no distinction between uppercase and lowercase

※ Word separator: any symbol, space, or mark used to distinguish words in writing

※ Writing: a system of visual symbols used to represent language, typically for communication across space and time
※ Writing system: a method of visually representing language through structured sets of symbols and rules

※ Yupana: an Inca counting board, possibly used for base-10 or base-40 calculations

※ Zongs: horizontal tally marks used in traditional Chinese counting systems

Glossary

☞

Intro

What

Writing?

Birthplace

Writing

Children

Egypt

Cuneiform -

"Neanderthal

Script"

Oracle

Bones

Extinct

Scripts

Invented

Writing

Punctuation

Symbols

Number

Systems

Lessons

From

Writing

APPENDICES

Bibliography

Edited Volumes

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Pae, Hye K. ‘Script Effects as the Hidden Drive of the Mind, Cognition, and Culture’ in Joshi, R. Malatesha (ed), Literacy Studies: Perspectives from Cognitive Neurosciences, Linguistics, Psychology and Education, vol. 21, Springer, 2020, <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55152-0>
Rohsenow, John S, ‘Fifty Years of Script and Written Language Reform in the P.R.C.‘ in ‘Minglang Zhou and Hongkai Sun, Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949’, Language Policy, vol. 4, 2004
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Books

Adkins, Lesley and Adkins, Roy, The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs, Harper Collins, 2000
Andresen, Julie Tetel and Carter, Phillip M, Languages In The World: How History, Culture, and Politics Shape Language, Wiley Blackwell, 2016, pp. 110-111
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Academic Journals

Colvin, Andrew Z, et al, ‘Peripatric Speciation, WikiJournal of Science, vol. 1, no. 2, 2018, <https://doi.org/10.15347/WJS/2018.008>
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Fuhrman, Orly and Boroditsky, Lera, ‘Cross-Cultural Differences in Mental Representations of Time: Evidence From an Implicit Non-linguistic Task’, Cognitive Science, vol. 34, no. 8, <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01105.x>, pp. 1430-1431
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Images

Chapter 1

Fig. 1.1: Nick Shanks, ‘World alphabets & writing systems’ (2014), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_alphabets_%26_writing_systems.svg> [CC-BY-SA-3, accessed April 2025]
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Fig. 1.4: Lascaux Painting, illustration by @EUX, Wikimedia Commons, <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Lascaux_painting.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 1.5: David Schrader, ‘Breakthroughs in Writing’ (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 1.6: David Schrader, ‘Sources of Pristine Writing’, based on @Ding Zhiren, blank map world rivers, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blank_map_world_rivers.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 1.7: Clay Accounting Tokens Susa Louvre, illustration by Nguyen, Marie-Lan, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clay_accounting_tokens_Susa_Louvre_n2.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 1.8: Pre-Cuneiform Tags, Susa, illustration by Hudson, Paul, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pre-cuneiform_tags,_Sumer.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 1.9: Pictographs recording the allocation of beer, illustration by Kuhn, Jim, Wikimedia Commons, image, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pictographs_Recording_the_Allocation_of_Beer_(London,_England).jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]

Chapter 2

Fig. 2.1: Mostafa Wael, ‘Rashid for Wiki’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rashid_For_Wiki-11.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
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Fig. 2.4: Rosetta Stone at the British Museum, illustration by Hillewaert, Hans, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.5: Hieroglyphs from the tomb of Seti I, (background removed, image enhanced), illustration by Jon Bodsworth, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg> [free to use with attribution, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.6: David Schrader, ‘Egyptian Graphemes’ (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 2.7: Hieroglyphic determinatives, (background removed), in Budge, E.A. Wallace, ‘Egyptian Hieroglyphic Writing’ in Kroeber, Alfred Louis, Source Book in Anthropology, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931, <https://www.originalsources.com/Document.aspx?DocID=9S1BLG9NBE5IMEA#>
Fig. 2.8: Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic script, and demotic script, image adapted from G. Moller, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Vereins für Buchwesen und Schrifttum, ii, 1919, p. 79, (public domain), reproduced by Encyclopædia Britannica, <https://www.britannica.com/topic/hieratic-script> [accessed April 2025]
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Fig. 2.9b: David Schrader, ‘Boustrophedon’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 2.10: @PRA, Law of Gortyn – Crete, (image cropped and enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crete_-_law_of_Gortyn_-- _boustrophedon.JPG> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.11: Georg Moritz Ebers, ‘Francisco Champollion’ (1882), illustration by Fondo Antiguo de la Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egipto,_1882_%22Francisco_Champollion%22_(21649057896).jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.12: Thomas Young Portrait, illustration by AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Thomas_Young.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.13: @Afanous, ‘Coptic Alphabet’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CopticLetters.svg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.14: ‘Letters derived from Demotic’, Coptic Script, Wikipedia, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_script> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.15: David Schrader, ‘Rosetta Stone’ (© author’s own, 2025) based on illustrations sourced from Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg> [public domain, accessed April 2025], <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolemy_I.Sot%C3%A9r_birth_cartouche.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 2.16: David Schrader, ‘Cartouches’, (author’s own, 2025), based on cartouches sourced from Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolemy_I.Sot%C3%A9r_birth_cartouche.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025], Time Trips, <https://www.timetrips.co.uk/pharaoh%20name%20answers.htm> [with permission, accessed April 2025], Adkins, Lesley and Adkins, Roy, The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs, Harper Collins, 2000, p. 180

Chapter 3

Fig. 3.1: ‘Serabit Sphinx’, illustration by @Onceinawhile, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Serabit_sphinx_(EA41748).png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.1b: Hosni ben Barak, Proto-Sinaitic script, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Proto-sinaitic_script.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.2: Phoenician Alphabet, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phoenician_Alphabet.svg> [CC0 1.0 (Public Domain), accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.3: Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum CIS I 184 (from Carthage), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Corpus_Inscriptionum_Semiticarum_CIS_I_CIS_I_184_(from_Carthage)_(cropped).jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.4: M. Adiputra, ‘Ge’ez Script Sample’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geez_script_sample.svg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.5: Old South Arabian Inscription, (background removed), illustration by @Email4mobile, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sana%27_national_museum_11.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.6: David Schrader, ‘From Egyptian Hieroglyphs to Ge’ez’ (© author’s own, 2025),
Fig. 3.7: @Hoshvilim, Ethiopian Abyssinian Church Jerusalem, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethiopian_Abbyssinian_Church_Jerusalem,_Israel_02.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.8: @Lucyin, Tiznit road sign, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zgh-plake_province_Tiznite.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.9: Book of Leviticus in Paleo-Hebrew, (background removed),Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:11QpaleoLev_-_Qumran_Cave_11.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.10: Samaritan Bible page, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samaritan_Leviticus.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.11: @Ennomus, Neo-Assyrian Empire, Wikimedia Commons, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Neo-Assyrian_Empire.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.11b: @Ichthyovenator, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-Babylonian_Empire_under_Nabonidus_map.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.11c: Achaemenid Empire, illustration by @Cattette, Wikimedia Commons <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.11d: @Avantiputra7, Seleucid Empire, (image cropped), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seleucid_Empire_alternative_map_edited.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.12: Carpentras Stele, France, (background removed), illustration by @CIS, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carpentras_Stela,_in_CIS_II_141_(cropped).jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.12b: Aramaic inscriptions from Pakistan, (colour enhanced), illustration by Marshall, John, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sirkap_Aramaic_inscription_4th_century_BC.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.12c: David Schrader, ‘Descendants of Aramaic’, (©, author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 3.13: United Nations, ‘UNDHR Article 1’, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mandaic_-_UNDHR_Article_1.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.14: Yasna 28.1, Ahunavaiti Gatha, (background removed), Wikipedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
3.15: Kharosthi writing, illustration by @PD, Wikimedia Commons, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:YingpanKharoshthi.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.16: 17th c. Syriac liturgical text, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Syriac_NT_Lectionary,_Borgia_Syriac_Ms_13.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.17: Sogdian text, (background removed), illustration by @Shahryâr Zâdag, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sogdian_text_Manichaean_letter.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.17b: Text in Manichaean script, illustration by @Daderot, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Manichaean_cosmogonic_text,_Sogdian_language_in_Manichaean_script,_Khocho,_9th-10th_century_AD,_leather_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC01758.JPG> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.18: @Kurmanbek, Old Turkic Script, (cropped, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Turkic_script.svg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.18b: Welcome sign in Balassagyarmat, illustration by @Balint36, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Welcome_sign_in_Balassagyarmat.JPG> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.19: Old Uyghur manuscript, illustration by Pelliot Ouïgour, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OldUyghurManusctiptPelliotOu%C3%AFgour1.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 3.19b: Čoyijod Dagini manuscript, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C4%8Coyijod_Dagini_manuscript_01.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.19c: Qing dynasty imperial patent, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qing_dynasty_imperial_patent_written_in_Manchu_with_a_seal_impression_in_Chinese_and_Manchu_script_Wellcome_L0050428.jpg> [CC BY 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.20: David Schrader, ‘From hieroglyphs to Hebrew’ (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 3.21: Aramaic Script, (background removed), ‘Aramaic Script’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/aramaic.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.22: Jewish Incantation Bowl, (background removed), illustration by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Incantation_bowl,_from_Babylon,_Iraq._Aramaic_inscription_with_a_human_figure,_4th_to_7th_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum,_Berlin.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.23: Amna Rajoub, Aramaic to Arabic, (image enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nabt_language2.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.24: Zoroastrian mural, illustration by India, Sasha, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zoroastrian_themes,_Yazd_(11)_(28680479891).jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.25: @Serg!o, Arabic Script, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabic-script.png> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.26: Nijagunappa Deepamala, Brahmi Script in ‘Linguistic Elegance of the Languages of South India’, Handbook of Statistics, vol. 38, 2018
Fig. 3.27: Brahmic scripts, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brahmic_script_travel_from_India.png> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.27b: @OldKnip, some Brahmic descendants, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brahmic_Vok_Dia.gif> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.28: David Schrader, ‘From hieroglyphs to Brahmi’ (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 3.29: Ashoka inscription, illustration by Sachin Kumar Tiwary, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ashoka_Lauriya_Areraj_inscription.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.30: History of Tamil Script, illustration by @Karthickbala, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:History_of_Tamil_Script.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.31: @Agilight, Tibetan on a hillside, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9E%D0%BC_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D1%85%D1%83%D2%A3.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.32: Holman, Shannon, 'Medicines on the Road to Kyaiktiyo Paya', Flickr, <https://www.flickr.com/photos/shannonholman/104186060/in/pool-burma/> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.33: Christian Haugen, Thai writing on a temple, Flickr, <https://flickr.com/photos/christianhaugen/3344177668> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.34: Pravin Premkumar, Pura Puseh Temple, Bali, Flickr, <https://www.flickr.com/photos/pravin8/330213228/> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.35: Doctrina Christiana, illustration by @Gubernatoria, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DoctrinaChristianaEspanolaYTagala8-9.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.36: @Dudva, Cambodian Beers, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angkor_and_Cambodia_beer.JPG> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.37: Emblem of Nepal, illustration by Biplab Anand, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Nepal.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.38: @Dragfyre, Lao street sign, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francois_Ngin_street_corner_Vientiane.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.39: @Tautintanes, Eastern Celtiberian signiary, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Un_signari_celtib%C3%A8ric_oriental.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.5, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.39b: @Tautintanes, Greco-Iberian alphabet, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Un_alfabet_greco-ib%C3%A8ric.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.39c: Luzaga plaque, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bronce_luzaga.jpg> [public domain, accessed June 2025]
Fig. 3.40: ‘Coptic Cross’, illustration by @Sagredo, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coptic_cross.svg> [CC-BY-SA-3, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.40b: Gothic Bible, (image enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wulfila_bibel.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.41: Glagolitic inscription, illustration by @Dokideide, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glagoljaski_natpis_u_Omislju.jpg> [GNU Free Documentation License, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.42: @Jelican9, Kazakh Cyrillic alphabet, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kazakh_alphabet_(cyrillic).svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.43: Shmyhelskyi, Oleksandr, Ukrainian Drinks, (© with permission)
Fig. 3.44: @herr.eichhorn, Police car in Tbilisi, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Police_car_in_Tbilisi_(78).jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.44b: Central Bank of Armenia, Armenian alphabet commemorative coin, 2002, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AM_10000_dram_Au_2002_Alphabet_a.png> [non-protected work, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 3.45: David Schrader, Proposed Genealogy of the Latin Alphabet, (author's own, 2025, based on illustrations by @INFIYNJTE and @, Wikimedia Commons), [CC BY-SA 4.0], May 2025]
Fig. 3.45b: @Osado, Visigoth script, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AlfabetoVisigodo.png> [public domain, May 2025]
Fig. 3.46: Kylver Stone, illustration by Creutz, Gunnar, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kylverstenens_futhark-inskrift_1384-1385.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.46b: Hermann Junghans, Hagia Sofia runic graffiti, (image cropped), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Runen_Hagia_Sophia.JPG> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.47: Middle English miniscule, in 'Changes in the English Language', English Changes Over Time, <https://englishchangesovertime.weebly.com/middle-english.html> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.48: @Jaggery, Ye Olde Inne, 2007, Westerleigh, England, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ye_Olde_Inne,_Westerleigh_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5469612.jpg> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.49: David Schrader, ‘Ogham’, (© author’s own, 2025), based on Thiery, Florian and Thiery, Peter, Ogham Stones, (image cropped, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tullygarran_Ogham_Stones.jpg> [CC BY 4.0, accessed May 2025] and @Runologe, Ogham Letters, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:All_Ogham_letters_without_Forfeda_-_%C3%9Cbersicht_aller_Ogham-Zeichen_ohne_Forfeda.jpg> [CC BY 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.50: Codex Sinaiticus, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_sinaticus_(The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XXII).jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 3.51: Littera in manuscript, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]

Chapter 4

Fig. 4.1: Pietro della Valle, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portret_van_Pietro_della_Valla,_RP-P-1909-4464.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.2: Ali Daniel, cuneiform demonstration, screenshot from ‘Clay Tablet with Cuneiform Writing’, YouTube, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00R7WVzlzbI> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 4.2b: David Schrader, illustration of cuneus, based on illustration by @LessayCatus, , <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calame-1.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.5, accessed July 2025]
Fig. 4.3: Proto-cuneiform tablet, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tablet_of_pre-cuneiform_writing-AO_19936-IMG_6732.JPG> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.4: Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty – Akkadian, (background removed), illustration by Osama Shukir Muhammed Ami, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clay_tablet,_Egyptian-Hittite_peace_treaty_between_Ramesses_II_and_%E1%B8%AAattu%C5%A1ili_III,_mid-13th_century_BCE._Neus_Museum,_Berlin.jpg> [CC BY 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.5: Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty – Egyptian, (image cropped), illustration by Olaf Tausch, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karnak_%C3%84gyptisch-Hethitischer_Friedensvertrag_05.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.5b: David Schrader, ‘Darius I in Old Persian Cuneiform’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 4.6: Behistun Inscription, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Behistun_inscription_reliefs.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 4.7: Mason, William Albert, Cuneiform pictographic signs (vertical), (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuneiform_pictographic_signs_(vertical).jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.8: Bertin, G, Nebuchadnezzar II in cuneiform, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nebuchadnezzar_in_Akkadian.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.9: Henry Rawlinson, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Rawlinson_(crop).jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.10: Edward Hincks, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Hincks.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.11: Jules Oppert, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Julius_N._Oppert_(cropped).jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.12: Cyrus Cylinder, (background removed), illustration by @Prioryman, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrus_Cylinder_front.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.13: Behistun Inscription (close), (colour enhanced), illustration by @KendallKDown, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.14: Tablet of Epic of Gilgamesh, (background removed), illustration by Mike Peel, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Museum_Flood_Tablet_1.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.15: Lugal Zage-si, illustration by @ALFGRN, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prisoner_exiting_a_cage,_on_an_Akkadian_Empire_victory_stele_circa_2300_BCE,_Louvre_Museum.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.16: Evolution of cuneiform, (image enhanced and re-arranged, background removed), in John Huehnergard and Christopher Woods, ‘Akkadian and Eblaite’ in Roger D. Woodard, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 222, accessed from Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuneiform_evolution.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.17: Evolution of cuneiform, (background removed), in William Albert Mason, A History of the Art of Writing, Macmillan, 1920, p. 256
Fig. 4.18: @AnonMoos, ‘Ugaritic Chart of Letters’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ugaritic_Chart_of_Letters.svg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.19: Old Persian cuneiform alphabet, (background removed), ‘Old Persian Cuneiform’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/opcuneiform.htm> [© with permission, accessed April]
Fig. 4.20: Aramaic letter, illustration by Khalili Collections, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA01.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.21: Le Brun, Charles, ‘Entry of Alexander into Babylon’ (1665), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 4.22: Kandahar Ashoka Edict, (colour enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AsokaKandahar.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]

Chapter 5

Fig. 5.1: Jiahu symbol on turtle shell, (background removed, ring added), illustration by @Kcx36, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.2: Jiahu symbol on turtle shell, (background removed), illustration by @Kcx36, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shang_Inscribed_Ox_Scapula_(for_divination).jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.3: Huangdi, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow_Emperor.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.3b: Cangjie, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cangjie2.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.3c: Wang Yirong, (image enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wang_Yirong.jpg> [public domain, accessed June 2025]
Fig. 5.3d: Luo Zhenyu, (image enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luo_Zhenyu1.JPG> [public domain, accessed June 2025]
Fig. 5.4: Seal Script, illustration by @Gsklee, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:XiaozhuanQinquan_sized.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.5: ‘Figure 1’, (background removed), in Yu Tzu Wu, Eric Fujiwara and Carlos Kenichi Suzuki, ‘Image-Based Radical Identification in Chinese Characters’, in vol. 13, no. 4, 2023, <https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042163> [CC BY 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.6: @Bustamante.tung, Nushu Script Museum, Hunan, China, , Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nvshu_script_museum.jpg> [CC BY 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.7: Bopomofo Letters, (background removed), ‘Zhuyin Fuhao/Bopomofo’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/zhuyin.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.8: 5000 dong banknote, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vietnam_5000_Dong_1953_Averse.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 5.9: Hiragana, (image cropped and enhanced, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%B9%B3%E5%81%87%E5%90%8D%E6%B8%85%E9%9F%B3%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%BD.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 5.10: Katakana, (image cropped and enhanced, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E7%89%87%E5%81%87%E5%90%8D%E6%B8%85%E9%9F%B3%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%BD.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 5.11: Katakana and Man’yōgana, (image enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Katakana_origine.png> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 5.12: Schrader, David, ‘Japanese translation’ (© author’s own, 2025), Google Translate, <https://translate.google.com>

Chapter 6

Fig. 6.1: Cretan seal, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pini-plombe-orig-II2_316d_3.2.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.2: Linear A tablet, (image cropped, background removed), illustration by @TimeTravelRome, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Linear_A_script_Tablets_from_the_Kastelli_Hill_at_Chania_-_1450_BC.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.3: Idalion tablet, (background removed, colour enhanced), illustration by Olivier Masson (1961), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Idalion_tablet.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.4: Phaistos Disc, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PhaistosDiskLarge.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.5: Pylos tablet, (image cropped, background removed), illustration by Sharon Mollerus, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Linear_B_tablet_of_Pylos.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.6: Linear A Syllabary, (background removed), ‘Linear A’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/lineara.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.7: Linear B Syllabary, (background removed), ‘Linear B’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/linearb.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.8: Vinča symbols, (background removed), ‘Vinča script’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/vinca.htm> [© with permission, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.9: Linear Elamite, (background removed, colour enhanced), illustration by Jean-Vincent Scheil (1905), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bilingual_Linear_Elamite_Akkadian_inscription_of_king_Kutik-Inshushinak_Table_of_the_Lion_Louvre_Museum_Sb_17.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.10: Luwian hieroglyphs, (background removed, colour enhanced), illustration by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slab_with_Hittite_hieroglyphic_inscriptions_mentioning_the_activities_of_king_Urhilina_and_his_son._9th_century_BC._From_Hama._Museum_of_the_Ancient_Orient,_Istanbul.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.11: Harappan impressions, (image re-arranged, background removed), illustration by @ALFGRN, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_script.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.12: Harappan symbols, ‘Indus/Harappa script’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/indus.htm> [© with permission, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.13: @Kwamikagami, Maya script reading direction, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maya_script_reading_direction.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.14: @Kwamikagami, Maya glyphs, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Palenque_glyphs-edit1.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.15: Mayan glyph formation, ‘The Maya Writing System’, Maya Archaeologist, <https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/public-resources/maya-world/maya-writing-system/> [©, with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.16: Maya glyph formation with affixes, ‘The Maya Writing System’, Maya Archaeologist, <https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/public-resources/maya-world/maya-writing-system/> [©, with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.17: Mayan syllabary, (image edited), ‘The Maya Writing System’, Maya Archaeologist, <https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/public-resources/maya-world/maya-writing-system/> [©, with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.18: some Mayan logograms, ‘The Maya Writing System’, Maya Archaeologist, <https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/public-resources/maya-world/maya-writing-system/> [©, with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.19: Everson, Michael, ‘Cascajal Text’ (2005), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cascajal-text.jpg> [CC BY 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.20: reproduced Aztec glyphs, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aztecwriting.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.21: Dresden Codex in Alexander von Humboldt, (background removed), (1810), viewed in Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Humboldt_1810_pp_47_48_50_51_52.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 6.22: various Nsibidi symbols, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nsibidi.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 6.23: Rongorongo engravings, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rongo-rongo_script.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]

Chapter 7

Fig. 7.1: Saint Cyril, (background removed), illustration by Sławomir Czyż, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Icon_of_Saint_Cyril,_The_Holy_Mount_of_Grabarka.jpg> [GNU Free Documentation License, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.2: Lindenschmit, Wilhelm, ‘Wulfila’, in Johannes Scherr, illustration by Fondo Antiguo de la Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla, viewed in Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Germania,_1882_1020017_(4358323359)_(cropped).jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.3: @Korea.net, Statue of King Sejong the Great, Flickr, <https://www.flickr.com/photos/koreanet/4273003660/in/dateposted/> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.4: Mouth correspondences of Hangul letters, (image enhanced, background removed), in A. E. Gnanadesikan, The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, p. 198, viewed in Ingrid Piller, ‘Happy Hangul Day!’, Language on the Move, <https://www.languageonthemove.com/happy-hangul-day/> [accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.5: @Vacio, Hangul syllabic blocks, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hangeul-hy.svg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.6: Korean newspaper headline, (ring added), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Korean_Association_of_NY_on_the_news_regarding_KAL_007_(1983)_3.jpg> [no known copyright, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.7: Bagas Hutagalung, Primary School in Baubau, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:State_Elementary_School_Karya_Baru.jpg> [CC BY 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.8: Bagas Hutagalung, Cia-Cia in Hangul, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cia-Cia.jpg> [CC BY 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.9: Hunmin Jeongeum, illustration by @Kjoonlee, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hunmin_Jeongeum.svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.10: Baxter, Neil, Cree syllabics, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cree_syllabic.gif> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.11: Jackson, Clarence, ‘Lord’s Prayer in Cherokee’, Graham County, <https://www.grahamcounty.net/gchistory/01-precountyhistory/cherokeehistory.htm> [accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.12: Lapointe, Sébastien, Iqaluit stop sign, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IqaluitStop.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.13: Letter in Osage, ‘Osage Script’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/osage.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.14: Kiatuak, ‘Lord’s Prayer’ (1909), Omniglot, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%AE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.14b: Deseret alphabet, 'Deseret', Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/writing/deseret.htm> [© with permission, accessed August 2025]
Fig. 7.15: @LamineNoracisse, Grave of Solomana Kanté, Omniglot, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grave_of_Kant%C3%A9_Soulemane,_inventeur_de_l%27alphabet_N%27Ko.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.16: Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Vai and English, ‘Vai Language’, Wikipedia, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai_language> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.16b: @RoboRanks, Osmanya script, (image enhanced, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ciismaniya.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0]
Fig. 7.16c: Osmanya typewriter, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typewriter_of_British_Somaliland.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.16d: Immanuel Giel, Adlam script, (image cropped, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adlam_acronym.png> [GNU free licence, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.17: Afaka syllabograms, illustration by @kwami, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Afaka_1920.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.18: Wikipedia’s Santali logo, Wikipedia, <https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.19: Shong Lue Yang, (image cropped and enhanced), illustration by Xou Vang, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soob_Lwj_Yaj.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.20: @ AlphaLaugh, Phaj Hauj Hmoob, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%22Phaj_Hauj_Hmoob%22_in_Pahawh.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.21: Snelson, Brian, Hmong women in traditional dress, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hmong_women_at_Coc_Ly_market,_Sapa,_Vietnam.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.22: Shaw alphabet edition of Alice in Wonderland, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shavian_alphabet_-_Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland_-_book_cover.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.23: Quickscript alphabet, (image cropped, background removed), illustration by Paul Tremblay, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quickscript_alphabet_revised_names.png> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.24: Basic Blissymbols, illustration by Arno Hollosi, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basicsymbols.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.25: Schrader, David, ‘Blissymbols Used on This Website’, (author’s own, 2025), from Blissymbols full set, Blissymbolics, <http://www.blissymbolics.net/BCI-AV_2025-02-15/bliss_svg.zip> [accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.26: Cirth inscription on King Balin’s tomb, (background removed), ‘Cirth’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/cirth.htm> [© with permission, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 7.26b: Yost, Peter J, The One Ring, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:One_Ring_Blender_Render.png> CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.27: Wakandan script, (background removed), ‘Wakandan’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/wakandan.htm> [© with permission, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.28: Alien alphabet, ‘Futurama Alien Alphabet’, Omniglot, <https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/futurama.htm>, adapted from The Infosphere, <https://theinfosphere.org/File:AL1_Key-2.png> [© with permission, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 7.29: @Runic_code, Klingon alphabet, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kli_piqad.GIF> [public domain, accessed May 2025]

Chapter 8

Fig. 8.1: Edwin Smith Papyrus, illustration by Jeff Dahl, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.2: Latin in scriptio continua, (image cropped), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Great_Library_of_Alexandria,_O._Von_Corven,_19th_century.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.3: Jin Zhang, Chinese text (1909), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jin_Zhang_Chinese_calligraphy,_one_hundred_images_of_goldfish,_1909.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.4: 17th century Syriac liturgical text, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Syriac_NT_Lectionary,_Borgia_Syriac_Ms_13.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.5: @Arkony, Paragraphos, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paragraphos.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, viewed April 2025]
Fig. 8.6: Menander’s Sicyonians, illustration by @Zunkir, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Menandre_Sycioniens_Medinet_Ghoran_2272e.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 8.7: Appius Claudius, (colour enhanced), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Appiuscaecusstele01.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.8: Boriska, ‘Fust-Schöffer Bible’ (1462), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sch%C3%B6ffer-Fust_Biblia.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.9: Aristotle, ‘Physics’, (image cropped, rings added), Wikimedia Commons, < https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_latin_manuscript.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.10: O. Von Corven, ‘Ancient Library of Alexandria’, illustration by Igor Merit Santos, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Great_Library_of_Alexandria,_O._Von_Corven,_19th_century.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.11: Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, ‘Saint Isidor of Sevilla’ (1655), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.12: David Schrader, ‘Evolution of the Period (Full Stop), Colon and Comma’ (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 8.13: @Angelus, development of the question mark, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quaestio.svg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.14: 8th century punctus interrogativus, (ring added), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Btv1b6000718s.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.15: ‘Punctus Interrogativus from Bern’, (ring added), illustration by E-Codices, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punctus_interrogativus_from_Bern,_B%C3%BCrgerbibliothek_Cod._162,_f._15r.jpg> [CC BY 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.16: dagger symbol for footnote, (ring added), in John Bunyan, , 1678 , illustration by Early Novels Database, Flickr, <https://www.flickr.com/photos/97741188@N04/14489825415> [CC BY 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.17: David Schrader, Original Use of the Enotikon’ (© author’s own, 2025) based on information from ‘Punctuation Shared with Latin’, , <https://opoudjis.net/unicode/punctuation.html> [accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.18: Diple variants, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diple-periestigmene.png> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.19: Codex Fuldensis, (red rings added), Wikipedia, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Start_of_the_prologue_to_Acts_from_the_Codex_Fuldensis.png> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.20: @Alatius, evolution of the ampersand, Wikimedia Commons, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Historical_ampersand_evolution.svg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.21: historical percentage symbols, in David Euguene Smith, , Boston Ginn, 1908, pp. 439-441, sourced from Wikipedia, <https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Percent_sign_in_1648.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025], Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Percent_sign_in_1339.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025], Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Percent_sign_in_1425.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.22: Isaac Newton, lb ligature, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Libra_pondo_abbreviation_newton.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.23: Castilian aroba, (image enhanced), illustration by Jorge Romance, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ariza1448-2.jpg> [GNU free documentation license, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.24: Asterisks from 4th-5th century Greek text, (rings added), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asteriskos.gif> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.25: Wanted poster of John Wilkes Booth (1865), (image cropped, ring added), Wikipedia, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Wilkes_Booth_wanted_poster_new.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.26: Fryderyk Bernard Wernher, Głogów castle, Wikimedia Commons, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glogau_zamek_XVIII_wiek.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 8.27: Arabic use of jīm as square root symbol, (image enhanced), in Jeffrey A. Oaks, Algebraic Symbolism in Medieval Arabic Algebra, vol. 87, 2012, <http://dx.doi.org/10.21825/philosophica.82139>, p. 37
Fig. 8.28: Goedkeuringskrul, (background removed), in ‘The Dutch “Krul” – A Unique Mark of Approval’, Transparent, <https://blogs.transparent.com/dutch/the-dutch-krul-a-unique-mark-of-approval/> [©, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 8.29: David Schrader, ‘Korean correction markings’, (©, author’s own, 2025)

Chapter 9

Fig. 9.1: David Schrader, ‘Historical Number One’, (© author’s own, 2025
Fig. 9.2: David Schrader, ‘Cuneiform Numerals‘, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.2b: David Schrader, ‘Hieroglyphic Numerals, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.3: David Schrader, ‘Roman Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.4: David Schrader, ‘Brahmi Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.5: Bryan Derksen, Mayan numerals, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maya.svg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 9.6: @Gisling, Oracle Bone Numerals, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shang_numerals.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 9.7: David Schrader, ‘Aegean Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.8: David Schrader, ‘Duodecimal Counting’, (© author’s own, 2025), based on @Marcosticks, hand illustration, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marcosticks-Human_hand-Wide-open_Flat_Palm.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.9: David Schrader, ‘Attic Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.9b: David Schrader, ‘Milesian Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.9c: David Schrader, 'Milesian Descendants', (© author's own, 2025)
Fig. 9.10: David Schrader, ‘Phoenician Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.11: Kurt Sethe, Egyptian numerals table, (image cropped, highlighting added), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_History_Of_Mathematical_Notations_Vol_I_-_Egyptian_numerals._Hieroglyphic,_hieratic,_and_demotic_numeral_symbols._(This_table,_was_compiled_by_Kurt_Sethe.).png> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.12: David Schrader, ‘Hebrew Gematria’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.13: David Schrader, ‘Abjad Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.14: David Schrader, ‘Roman Numerals Evolution’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.15: Steve Fareham, church clockface , Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Darfield_All_Saints_Church_clock_face_-_geograph.org.uk_-_934144.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed May 2025]Fig. 9.16: Schrader, David, ‘Chinese Numerals’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.17: Gustave Doré, ‘Leviathan, Waters of Chaos’ in John Milton, , 1866, accessed in Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paradise_Lost_31.jpg> [accessed April 2025]
Fig. 9.18: David Schrader, ‘Babylonian Numbers’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.19: Jacek Halicki, alarm clock, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2023_Budzik_Perfect.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 9.20: Ed Stevenhagen, ‘Compass rose’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kompassrose.svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.21: Decimal Clock, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 9.22: David Schrader, ‘Mayan Numbers’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.23: Bakhshali manuscript, (background removed, ring added), illustration by National Geographic, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bakhshali_manuscript.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.24: David Schrader, ‘Evolution of Brahmi Numerals‘, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.25: David Schrader, ‘Hindu-Arabic Numbers‘, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 9.26: @Innocentbunny, Nepalese number plate – Devanagari, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Devanagari_Vehicle_Number_plate.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0]
Fig. 9.26b: @BasilLeaf, Nepalese number plate – Arabic, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nepal_License_Plate_-_3-Wheeler.png> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.27: Evolution of Hindu-Arabic numerals, (image edited, background removed), illustration by Tobus, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Brahmi_numeral_system_and_its_descendants.png> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.28: Saudia Arabian speed sign, (image cropped, colour adjusted). ‘Al Hada – Oder Baboons im Nebel’, Overland Travel, <https://overlandtravel.eu/al-hada-oder-baboons-im-nebel/> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.29: Nima Farid, Saudi number plate, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saudi_Arabia_KSA_-_License_Plate_-_Private_-_550x110mm.png> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.30: @Ajfweb, Cairo clock, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clock-in-cairo-with-eastern-arabic-numerals.jpg> [GNU free license, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.31: @Gisling, Rod numerals, (detail added), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chounumerals.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.32: @Voidvector, Suzhou numerals, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Huama_numerals.svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.33: Claus Ableiter, Quipu, Wikimiedia Commons, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inca_Quipu.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.34: Drawing of knot-tying methods, (image cropped, background removed) in L. Leland Locke, The Ancient Quipu or Peruvian Knot Record, 1923, from ‘Fig. 1’, American Museum of Natural History, New York, sourced in Kylie E. Quave, ‘The Inka Khipu’, Libre Texts – Humanities, Libre Texts, <https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/SmartHistory_of_Art_2e/SmartHistory_of_Art_XIa_-_The_Americas_before_1500/04:_South_America_before_c._1500/4.02:_Peru_and_Bolivia/4.2.13:_Inka/4.2.13.03:_The_Inka_khipu> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.34b: Quipu example, (background removed, figured added), ‘Communication Tied Up in Knots’, Miscellaneous Details, <https://miscellaneousdetailstm.wordpress.com/2018/06/20/communication-tied-up-in-knots/> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 9.35: Yupana in A. Aimi, ‘Le culture del Perù da Chavin agli Inca’ (background removed), , Silvana Editoriale Milano, 2004, p. 132, accessed from Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_PAM01349_-_Per%C3%B9_-_Cultura_Chim%C3%BA_-_Inca%3F.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]

Chapter 10

Fig. 10.1: Friedrich Nietzsche portrait, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nietzsche187a.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.1b: @Celette, Plaque Square Michel Foucault, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plaque_square_Michel-Foucault,_Paris_5e.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.2: Gaston Maspero, ‘Comparative Evolution of Cuneiform, Egyptian and Chinese Characters’, 1870, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform,_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.3: Chinese bamboo strips artefacts, (background removed), illustration by Internet Archive Book Images, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ruins_of_desert_Cathay_-_personal_narrative_of_explorations_in_Central_Asia_and_westernmost_China_(1912)_(14596515429).jpg> [no known copyright, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.4: ancient Egyptian reed calamus, (background removed), illustration by Museo Egizio, Turin, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calamo_per_scrittura_ricavato_da_canna_palustre_tagliata_in_obliquo_13S0086.tif> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.5: Egyptian scribe statue. (background removed), illustration by Walter Art Museum, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egyptian_-_Scribe_Statue_of_Min-nakht_-_Walters_22230_-_Three_Quarter.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.6: Native American travois, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sioux_Indian_travois,_ca_1893_(LAROCHE_138).jpeg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.7: Andrew Z. Colvin, sympatric speciation diagram, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sympatric_Speciation_(process_diagram).png> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.8: Andrew Z. Colvin, allopatric speciation diagram, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allopatric_Speciation_Schematic.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.9: Andrew Z. Colvin, peripatric speciation diagram, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peripatric_Speciation_Schematic.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.10: Andrew Z. Colvin, centrifugal speciation diagram, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Centrifugal_Speciation_Schematic.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.11: Andrew Z. Colvin, parapatric speciation diagram, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parapatric_Speciation_Schematic.svg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.12: Dario Urruty, mule, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Juancito.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.13: Ancient Greek epichoric alphabets, Wikimedia Commons, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Greek_epichoric_alphabets_(Indonesian_version).svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.13b: John Farey, 19th century printing press, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Printing_press.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.14: Noah Webster Dictionary 1828, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:American_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language_1828.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Fig. 10.15: Wassup, Cambridge Dictionary<https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/wassup> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.16: Bactrian text in Greek, (colour enhance, background removed), Wikimedia Commons, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bactrian_document_Northern_Afghanistan_4th_century.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.17: World distribution of Latin script, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Latin_alphabet_world_distribution.svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.18: Rivera, Diego, mural, illustration by Wolfgang Sauber, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Murales_Rivera_-_Treppenhaus_9_B%C3%BCcherverbrennung.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.18b: Diego de Landa, (image enhanced), ‘Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán’, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:De_Landa_alphabet.jpg> [public domain, accessed June 2025]
Fig. 10.19: Cyrillic world distribution, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrillic_alphabet_world_distribution.svg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.20: Madilyan, Nata, Udmurt people, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sep,_Italmas_Nuk_-_48012139112.jpg> [CC BY 2.0, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 10.21: Global distribution of Arabic script, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabic_alphabet_world_distribution_-_three_shades.png> [public domain, accessed April 2025]
Fig. 10.22: Kazakh national emblem 2014-2018, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_(2014%E2%80%932018).png> [no copyright, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.23: Kazakh national emblem 2018, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_3d.svg> [no copyright, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.24: @Vmenkov, Pinyin – kindergarten, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dajia-shuo-Putonghua-2817.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.25: Sōshi-kaimei bulletin, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_Name_Change_Bulletin_of_Taikyu_Court.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.26: Henri Bergius, Georgian sign, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Street_sign_in_Georgian_and_Latin_alphabets.jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.27: @Arbitrarily0, Arabic keyboard, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabic_keyboard.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0]
Fig. 10.28: @Samwingkit. Canjie input method, (background removed), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%80%89%E9%A0%A1%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E6%B3%95_%E6%8B%86%E7%A2%BC.jpg [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.29: Ataturk, Wikimedia Commons, < https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atat%C3%BCrk_Kemal.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.30: Andrew Mercer, Kookaburra with Cane Toad, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kookaburra_with_Cane_Toad_-_AndrewMercer_-_DSC00046.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.31: @Wilfredor, General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge, Venezuela, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:General_Rafael_Urdaneta_Bridge_view_from_the_lake_to_Cabimas_side.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.32: Confucius, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90%E7%87%95%E5%B1%85%E5%83%8F.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.33: David Schrader, Wikipedia Arabic screenshot, sourced from Wikipedia Arabic, <https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.33b: David Schrader, Wikipedia English screenshot, sourced from Wikipedia, <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page> [accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.33c: David Schrader, ‘Colour vs Color’, (© author’s own, 2025)
Fig. 10.34: Neddi, Mounir, Tifinagh notebook, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Notebook_of_a_Moroccan_student_from_Imouzzer_Marmoucha_(Tifinagh).jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.35: Justin Dolske, Hawaii beach trash 10 December 2016, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beach_trash_(30870156434).jpg> [CC BY-SA 2.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.36: @Planemad, world scripts, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chart_of_world_writing_systems.svg [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Fig. 10.37: Ryan Starkey, (image modified, background removed), ‘The ABCD Family Tree’, Starkey Comics, <https://starkeycomics.com/2018/12/11/the-abcd-family-tree/> [© with permission, accessed May 2025]

Bibliography

Website Images

Contents page: Schrader, Jacob, 'Origins of Writing', composite image based on images by David Stanley and @Jl FilpoC (Wikimedia Commons) [CC BY-SA 4.0]
Introduction banner: Mondineu, Étienne, ‘7 jours à Reuilly’, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_jours_%C3%A0_Reuilly_-_Etienne_Mondineu_-_btv1b103159574_(17_of_21).jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Chapter 1 banner: Hands at the Cuevas de las Manos, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SantaCruz-CuevaManos-P2210651b.jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Chapter 2 banner: Stele of Minnakht, (image cropped and faded), illustration by @Clio20, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Minnakht_01.JPG> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed May 2025]
Chapter 3 banner: @Onceinawhile, sarcophagus of Eshmunazor, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sarcophage_d%27Eshmunazor_-_500-475._av._J.-C._-_Sa%C3%AFda_Magharat_Tabloun_(Sa%C3%AFda)_-_Louvre_-_AO_4806_-_picture_03.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 4 banner: @Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, Xerxes cuneiform, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Xerxes_Cuneiform_Van_(cropped).png> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 5 banner: National Museum of China, Oracle Bone scapula, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shang_Inscribed_Ox_Scapula_(for_divination).jpg> [public domain, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 6 banner: Amethyst Holman, Mayan glyphs, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mayan_glyphs_of_the_Aurora_Elks_Lodge_No._705.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 7 banner: @Trainholic, ‘Hangul Jingbirok’, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hangul_Jingbirok.jpg> [CC BY-SA 4.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 8 banner: e-codices, punctus interrogativus from Bern, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punctus_interrogativus_from_Bern,_B%C3%BCrgerbibliothek_Cod._162,_f._15r.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 9 banner: @Ochmann-HH, Egyptian numbers, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nome_L_14_16.jpg> [CC BY-SA 3.0, accessed June 2025]
Chapter 10 banner: Schrader, David, ‘Evolution of A’, (© author’s own, 2025) with background from Mondineu, Étienne, ‘7 jours à Reuilly’, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_jours_%C3%A0_Reuilly_-_Etienne_Mondineu_-_btv1b103159574_(17_of_21).jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]
Appendix backgrounds: Mondineu, Étienne, ‘7 jours à Reuilly’, (image cropped and faded), Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_jours_%C3%A0_Reuilly_-_Etienne_Mondineu_-_btv1b103159574_(17_of_21).jpg> [public domain, accessed May 2025]

Audio Tracks

Track 1: Francis, Sam, ‘Ancient Ambient’, 2023, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-ancient-ambient-144655/> [royalty free]
Track 2: Francis, Sam, ‘World Adventure, 2023, Pixabay <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-world-adventure-156433/> [royalty free]
Track 3: Francis, Sam, ‘Mystic Elegy’, 2024, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-mystic-elegy-258703/> [royalty free]
Track 4: Francis, Sam, ‘Egypt Expedition – PhrygDom’, 2022, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-egypt-expedition-phrygdom-119040/> [royalty free]
Track 5: Francis, Sam, ‘The Sphinx Dream – Ancient Tune’, 2023, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-the-sphinx-dream-ancient-tune-149287/> [royalty free]
Track 6: Francis, Sam, ‘Temple Ambient, 2024, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-temple-ambient-140781/> [royalty free]
Track 7: Kaazoom, ‘Whispers of the Bamboo Forest’, 2025, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/world-whispers-of-the-bamboo-forest-345102/> [royalty free]
Track 8: Francis, Sam, ‘Lament of Eleusis’, 2023, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-lament-of-eleusis-245769/> [royalty free]
Track 9: Francis, Sam, ‘Technology’, 2024, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-technology-271272/> [royalty free]
Track 10: Francis, Sam, ‘Carpathian Mountains’, 2023, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-carpathian-mountains-11272/> [royalty free]
Track 11: Francis, Sam, ‘Into Liminality, 2023, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-into-liminality-278874/> [royalty free]
Track 12: Francis, Sam, ‘Rising’, 2021, Pixabay, <https://pixabay.com/music/ambient-rising-13048/> [royalty free]

Other Sources

Chapter 1

Omniglot - Types of Writing Systems: https://www.omniglot.com/writing/types.htm

OpenEd - Modalities of Language: https://pressbooks.openedmb.ca/wordandsentencestructures/chapter/language-modality/

UCLA - History of the Book, Chapter 2: https://hob.gseis.ucla.edu/HoBCoursebook_Ch_2.html

Chapter 2

Ancient Egyptian Cartouches: https://www.timetrips.co.uk/pharaoh%20names.htm

Egyptian Hieroglyph Catalogue (Gardiner List): https://www.egyptianhieroglyphs.net/gardiners-sign-list/

Hieroglyph keyboard: https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/hieroglyph.php

Omniglot - Ancient Egyptian Scripts: https://www.omniglot.com/writing/egyptian.htm

Penn Museum – Write Your Name in Hieroglyphs: https://www.penn.museum/cgi/hieroglyphsreal.php

World History - Egyptian Hieroglyphs: https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Hieroglyphs/

Chapter 3

Ancient Civs - Exploring the Aramaic Writing System: https://ancientcivs.blog/aramaic-writing-system/

Brahmi-Derived Scripts: https://sheet.shiar.nl/writing/brahmi

Lexigloss – Multilingual keyboard: https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/

The Old English Alphabet: https://people.uleth.ca/~daniel.odonnell/tutorials/the-old-english-alphabet
Phoenician-Derived Scripts: https://sheet.shiar.nl/writing
World History - Runes: https://www.worldhistory.org/runes/

Chapter 4

Archaeology.org – The World’s Oldest Writing: https://archaeology.org/collection/the-worlds-oldest-writing/

Cuneiform character list: https://home.zcu.cz/~ksaskova/Sign_List.html

Neocities – Cuneiform Writing Techniques in the Ancient Near East: https://cuneiform.neocities.org/CWT/CWT

Neocities – How to Write Cuneiform: https://cuneiform.neocities.org/CWT/howtowritecuneiform

Penn Museum – Write Your Name in Cuneiform: https://www.penn.museum/cgi/cuneiform.php

Smithsonian – What the Heck is Cuneiform Anyway?: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-heck-cuneiform-anyway-180956999/

World History – Cuneiform: https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/

Chapter 5

EBSCO – Kana Syllabary: https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/kana-syllabary

Laoshi – Write Your Name in Chinese Characters: https://laoshi.io/name/

Magnifissance – The Story of Chinese Characters: https://magnifissance.com/arts/the-story-of-chinese-characters/

World History – Chinese Writing: https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Writing/

A Simple Explanation of Chinese Characters: https://blog.tutorabcchinese.com/chinese-learning-tips/how-do-chinese-characters-work

Chapter 6

Africa History Extra - The Nsibidi script: https://www.africanhistoryextra.com/p/the-nsibidi-script-ca-600-1909-ce

Maya Archaeologist – Maya Writing: https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/school-resources/maya-world/maya-writing-system/

Smithsonian - Did the People of Easter Island Invent a Writing System From Scratch?: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/research-reveals-the-natives-of-easter-island-invented-a-written-language-from-scratch-180983793/

World History Encyclopedia – Indus Script: https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Script/

World History Encyclopedia – Linear A: https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_A_Script/

World History Encyclopedia – Linear B: https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_B_Script/

Chapter 6

Blissymoblics Communication International – Blissymbolics: https://www.blissymbolics.org/

Etela Africa – African Writing Systems: https://etela.africa/african-writing-systems-our-own-alphabet/

Korea 100 - The Origin and Historical Usage of Hangeul: https://dh.aks.ac.kr/Korea100/wiki/index.php?title=Knowledge_is_Power_-_The_Origin_and_Historical_Usage_of_the_Korean_Alphabet,_Hangeul&oldid=3904

Linguaphile Magazine – Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics: https://www.linguaphilemagazine.org/editorial/script-as-a-cultural-lifeline

Neography.info – Constructed Writing Systems: https://neography.info/

Omniglot – Constructed Scripts and Languages: https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/index.htm

Shavian.org – Shavian Alphabet: https://www.shavian.info/alphabet/

Chapter 8

Encyclopedia of Math – Mathematical Symbols: https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Mathematical_symbols#Ancient_Greece

Merriam-Webster – A Guide to Deciphering Diacritics: https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/how-to-use-and-understand-diacritics-diacritical-marks

Shady Characters by Keith Houston (origins of punctuation): https://shadycharacters.co.uk/

Chapter 9

Ancient Civilizations World - Ancient Civilizations Numeral Systems: https://ancientcivilizationsworld.com/number-systems/

Gematria Lab - Jewish Gematria Table: https://gematrialab.com/jewish-gematria-table

History Cooperative - Who Invented Numbers?: https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-numbers/

Mathematical Explorations - Exploring the Fascinating Evolution and Discovery of Number Systems Throughout History: https://mathematicalexplorations.co.in/discovery-of-number-systems/#A_Arabic_Numerals_in_Europe

Uloom – Abjad Numerals: https://www.uloom.com/stable/161121501?title=abjad%20numerals

World History Edu - History and Major Facts about the Hindu-Arabic Numerals: https://worldhistoryedu.com/history-and-major-facts-about-the-hindu-arabic-numerals/

World History Encyclopedia – Quipu: https://www.worldhistory.org/Quipu/

Chapter 10

Berkeley – Understanding Evolution - Speciation: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolution-101/speciation/defining-speciation/

CRG Review - Linguistic Imperialism: A Tool for Control in the British Empire: https://crgreview.com/linguistic-imperialism-a-tool-for-control-in-the-british-empire/

EBSCO – Cultural Transmission: https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/cultural-transmission

Endangered Alphabets: https://www.endangeredalphabets.com/

Helpful Professor - Linguistic Relativity: 10 Examples and Definition: https://helpfulprofessor.com/linguistic-relativity-examplesEndangered Alphabets: https://www.endangeredalphabets.com//

Memetics Word-Gate – Memetics: The Science of Cultural Evolution: https://memetics.word-gate.com/

Milestone Localization - Latin Alphabet: Languages That Use it & Variations: https://www.milestoneloc.com/latin-alphabet-usage-and-variations/

Ni Hao Ma - How to Type Chinese on a Computer: https://nihaoma-mandarin.com/pedagogy-corner/type-chinese-on-a-computer/

ScienceDirect - Cultural Transmission: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/cultural-transmission

Useful Links

I would like to thank the following contributors to Origins of Writing:

Dr. Diane Davies from Maya Archaeologist for her academic work and her kind permission to display her material (visit www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk)
Jacob Schrader for his exquisite graphic design
Oleksandr Shmyhelskyi for his photo contributions
Simon Ager from Omniglot for his scholarship and his kind permission to display his material (visit www.omniglot.com)
Yujin Lim for her endless support

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